M o lecu la r Ga str o n o m y w it h a M o d e r n Re te ll in g

In 1 9 6 9 , Ni ch o las K u rti a Univ e rsi ty of Ox fo rd p h y sici st rem a rked th a t “… it is a sa d re f lec tio n on our ci v il i z a tio n th a t w h il e we ca n a n d do m e a su re th e te m p e ratu re in th e a tmos p h e re of V e n u s we do n o t k n o w w h a t g o e s on insid e o u r s o u ff l é s” . 1 K u rti b e li e v e d th a t t h e d isco v e r y of n e w f o o d w o u ld b ri n g m o re h a p p ine ss th a n o t h e r scien ti f ic p u rsuits. A f t e r m a n y ye a rs d o i n g p h y sics rese a rch K u rti so u g h t to f u lf il l t h is b e li e f by p e r f o rm i n g fo o d rese a rch u sing h is p r e v iou s kn o w led g e of p h y sics to h is a d v a n t a g e .

T h is w a s th e f ir st st e p in th e cr e a ti o n of t h e f i e ld of m o lec u lar g a stron o m y . K u rti w e n t on to d iscov e r new te c h n iq u e s a n d a lon g w ith Herv e T h is, an u n d e rstud y of so rts, b e g a n a se ri e s of w o rksho p s th a t wo u ld se rv e as th e fo u n d a tio n fo r t h e f iel d as it e x ists to d a y . K u rti p a ss e d a w a y in th e w a n ing y e a rs of t h e tw e n tie th c e n t u ry but h is leg a cy li v e d on in th e w o rksho p s a n d t h e f i e ld itse l f .

T h is is t h e s to ry th a t h a s co n tin u a ll y b e e n t o ld, e s p e cially in r e ce n t y e a rs as th e p o p u lari ty of th e f ield g row s. Upo n d e e p e r e x a m in a tio n th is st o ry is e x p o se d as a fa b ri ca tio n . It is e a sy to f a ll b a ck on a sto ry whe n a tt e m p tin g to e x p lain so m e t h ing so co m p l e x but t h e tru th r e v e a ls o th e r c h a ract e r s w h o se co n trib u tio n s a re u n fa ir ly s w e p t a w a y wi th o u t t a rnish in g th o se of K u rti a n d T h is. In a d d iti o n by loo king at th e tru e se q u e n ce of e v e n ts, it b e co m e s p o ssible to u n d e rsta n d w h y a ce rtai n sto ry w a s ch o se n and th e so cial co n d itio n s th a t le d to su ch a t a le.

T h is fa b ri ca t io n g o e s a ll th e w a y b a ck to t h e b e g inn ing of th e f iel d w h ich is m u c h m u rki e r th a n th e ta le s u g g e sts. A ll th e w a y b a ck in 1 7 9 4 , S ir B e n ja m in T h o m p so n

1 K urt i , N i cho l as, B ut t he C r ac k l i ng Is S up erb . I nsti t ute of P hy si cs P ub l i shi n g. 1998

b e tt e r kn o w n as Co u n t Rumfo rd p u b li sh e d an e ssa y in w h ich he re m a rked t h a t th e a p p li ca tio n of ch e m istr y a nd o t h e r b ra n ch e s of sci e n ce to c o o ke ry was so a p p a ren t th a t he p re d icte d scien ti f ic inv e stig a tio n in th e a l m o st im m e d iat e f u tu re. 2 Cou n t R u m fo rd b e li e v e d th e a d v a n ta g e s w e re so o b v iou s t h a t w ith o u t h e sita tio n so m e e n li g h te n e d scien tist w o u ld th r o w o ff hi s o th e r w o rk and b e g in to rea p t h e a d v a n t a g e s of s u ch a p p li ca tio n . This w a s th e b a sic ide a f o r m o l e cu lar g a stron o m y but it w o u ld b e co m e d iffe ren tia te d o v e r th e u p co m ing y e a rs. T h e ide a of a p p ly ing scien ce to fo o d ca n e v e n be trac e d b a ck to se c o n d ce n tu ry BC f ro m an int a ct p a p y rus th a t w e ig h e d th e d iffe ren c e s in m e a t fo ll o w ing d iff e ren t p roc e s se s su ch as fe rm e n ta tio n a n d c o o king . In th e e a rl y 1 9 th c e n t u ry M a ri e - A n to ine Car ê m e , a fa m o u s Fr e n ch c h e f, inv e stig a te d t h e p rop e r m e t h o d of m a king fo o d sto cks. In 1 7 8 3 A n t o ine - L a u re n t de L a v o isi e r b e tt e r kn o w n fo r h is co n tribu ti o n s to th e f il e d of ch e m istry and d e a t h by g u il lot ine in t h e Fr e n ch Rev o lut ion stu d ied th e d iffe ren t d e n sities of fo o d st o cks in o rde r to e v a lua te q u a li ty .

T h e se a re o n ly th e p re - 2 0 th c e n t u ry co n tribu t o rs and th e y co m e no w h e re close to b e ing inv o lv e d in th e ta le th a t h a s b e e n w o v e n a b o u t m o lecu lar g a st ron o m y . It is ce rtain t h a t th e f o u n d a t ion s f o r t h e f i e ld w e re se t m a n y y e a rs b e f o r e e v e n th e b ir th of K u rti.

On e of t h e o th e r m a in d iscr e p a n ci e s b e side s th e d ism issal of t h e e a rl y int e rw o rki n g of cu isi n e and sci e n ce is th e d i ff e ren tia tio n or lack th e r e o f b e tw e e n g a stron o m y and fo o d s cien ce . Foo d scien c e is th e g e n e ral f iel d f o r t h e a p p li ca tio n of scien ce to fo o d a n d th e e a rl y fo cu s of fo o d s cien ce w a s in th e m o le cu lar int e ract i o n in

2 Sir B en j amin T ho m pso n , “ On t he con s t r uc t i on of k i t c he n f i r ep l ace s and k i t che n utensi l s, t o g ethe r w i t h r e m ar ks an d ob serv atio ns r el atin g to t he v ario us proces ses of coo k e r y , and proposa l s f or i m prov i ng t ha t m ost use f ul ar t ” . 17 9 4.

fo o d sy ste m s. In 1 9 3 2 P ro f e ss o r B e ll e L o w e p u b li sh e d a b o o k title d E xp e ri m e n ta l Coo ke ry: Fr o m th e Ch e m ical A n d P h ysical S t a n d p o int w h ich w a s a sta n d a rd t e x tb o o k fo r e m e rg ing f ield of h o m e e co n o m ics. T h is b o o k co n ta in e d m a n y d iffe ren t e x p e ri m e n ts and re fe ren c e d m a n y of th e e a rl ier w o rk in th e f ield . W i t h ch a p t e rs fo cu sing on th e co a g u lat ion of p rot e ins , f a ct o rs a ff e ctin g th e v iscosity of cr e a m a n d o th e r sim il a r fo cu se s , it is e a sy to s e e w h e re th e co n f u si o n ca n a ri se . 3 W i th a t a b le of c o n t e n ts th a t co u ld be co n f u s e d fo r a u n iv e rsi ty scien ce cu rr iculu m it b e co m e s e x trem e ly d i ff icult to d iffe ren tia te th is f ro m t h e f iel d of m o lecu lar g a stron o m y . A n o th e r g rou p in th is f i e ld a r e E v e l y n Halli d a y and Is a b e l No b le w h o w e re b o th h o m e e co n o m ics p rofe sso rs w h o p u b li sh e d a b o o k Fo o d Che m istry and Coo k e ry th a t co n ta in e d si m il a r title s as L o w e ’ s w o rk. 4 Halli d a y and No b le ’ s w o rk w a s e v e n m o re scien ti f ic w ith loo ks int o t h ing s su ch as h y d rog e n ion co n c e n trat ion a n d il lust ratio ns of la b e x p e ri m e n ts. For a n y o n e lo o king at th is f i e ld its v e ry d iff i cu lt to f ig u re out w h y t h e se a re n o t c o n sid e re d to be p a rt of t h e li n e a g e of m o lecu lar g a stron o m y . In trut h th e m o d e r n m e a n ing of g a stron o m y is ce rtain ly b u il t on th e w o rks of t h e h o m e e co n o m ics p r o f e sso rs of t h e e a rl y 2 0 th ce n tu ry and e v e n th o se of t h e 1 9 th ce n tu ry as th e te c h n iq u e s th a t w e re d isc o v e red w o u ld be u tili z e d in th e f i e ld in la te r y e a rs.

W h i le t h e w o rk of e a rl ier f o o d scien c e is a p a rt of m o lec u lar g a stron o m y th e re is a clea r d e li n e a tio n b e t w e e n th e tw o f ield s . S o m e of th e co n fu sio n t h a t a ri se s w h e n ty ing f o o d scien ce a n d g a stron o m y d ir e ctly to g e th e r is b e c a u s e of th e ch o ic e of n a m e . T h e n a m e m o lec u lar g a stron o m y w a s ch o se n b e ca u se in th e o rg a n i z ing of th e f ir st

3 B el l e Lo w e, E x pe r i m en t al C oo k e r y : Fro m t he C he m i cal and P hy si cal S t a nd po i nt( N ab u P r e ss: 19 32 ) .

4 E v el y n G. H al i da y and I sab el T. N ob l e, Food C he m i st r y and C oo k ery ( U n i v ersity of C hi ca g o P r ess: 19 43 ) .

w o rksho p in 1 9 9 2 , th e d ir e cto r of th e v e n u e w h e re t h e g a t h e ri n g w a s to be h e ld w a n te d a m o re fa n ci f u l title . 5 So in o rd e r to m e e t th e w h im sy of th e d ir e ct o r th e w o rd m o lecu lar w a s added to th e title of scien c e a n d g a stro n o m y . T o d a y th e m isno m e r h a s st u ck a n d is not re p rese n ta tiv e of th e w o rk th a t is g o ing on. In t h e e a rl y 1990s th e n a m e re fe rr e d to th e w a y scien tists e x a m ine d w h a t h a p p e n e d in fo o d at a s m a ll e r lev e l m o stly in relat ion to p a st recip e s and te c h n iq u e s. L a t e r on t h e f i e ld d e v e lop e d and b e g a n to mo ve m o re a w a y f ro m its stri ct scien ti f ic ro o ts to a m o re u n iq u e a rtist ic b ran d of co o king . Now a d a y s ch e f s t h a t w o u ld te ch n ic a ll y be classif ie d as m o lecu lar g a stron o m ists a re rej e ctin g th e t e rm fo r th e c o ld scien ti f ic n a t u re of t h e n a m e . The re is a b e li e f th a t w a s sh a re d at th e 2 0 0 9 M a d ri d F u sion c o n f e r e n ce th a t t h e n a m e d o e s n ’ t p rop e rl y d e f ine th e ir work at t h e in te rsect io n of scien c e , a rt, p sy ch o l o g y and co o king .

E v e n th o u g h th e y a g ree th a t t h e t e rm m o l e cu l a r g a stron o m y is not a p p rop ri a t e , e v e n w ith th e b e n e f it of h ind sig h t th e y a re u n a b l e to a g ree on a clea r d e f i n ition and d istinct io n b e tw e e n g a stro n o m y and scie n ce . As a resu l t of t h is lack of d e f initio n it ca n b e co m e d iff ic u lt to u n d e rst a n d just h o w th e f ield sta rte d a n d f ro m w h o m it b e g a n .

T h e o t h e r m a in a rea of th e cr e a tio n of th e f iel d is f o c u se d on th e w o rksho p s o rg a n iz e d d u ri n g th e e a rl y 1 9 9 0 s. The se w o rksho p s b a se d in E ri ce , S ici ly ca m e to be k n o w n as th e E ri ce w o rksho p s a n d h a v e b e e n a tt ri b u te d to K u rti a n d T h is. The st o ry wr o n g l y d iscr e d its E li za b e t h Caw d ry T h o m a s w h o w a s inst rum e n t a l in th e f o r m a tio n of th e w o rksho p . T h o m a s w a s m a rr ied to a p h y sici st and ra n a co o ki n g sch o o l in B e rkele y , Califo rnia. Tho m a s is o n e of t h e fe w A m e ri ca n s w h o w a s d e e p ly inv o l v e d in th e m o v e m e n t . In a 1 9 9 2 let te r p ro fe sso r Ug o V a ldre cr e d ite d T h o m a s w ith co m ing up

5 H el st on B l umen t ha l , Fe r r an A dria and H arol d M c G ee , ” M i sno m er of a N a m e” . ( M ad r i d Fu si on 20 09 ) . T r an sc r i be d by H ea t he r S pe r l i ng .

w ith th e m a in id e a fo r t h e w o rksho p and w a s su rpri se d at her l a ck of p rev a len ce in th e li te ratu re. 6 V a ldre rema rked th a t t h e p o ssibili ty fo r T h o m a s n o t b e ing li ste d in th e Org a n iz in g Com m itt e e w a s to a v o id p u b li city fo r her Co o king S ch o o l. E v e n K u rti in a let te r to th e a n o t h e r o r g a n iz e r cr e d ite d T h o m a s w ith sp a rki n g o ff t h e p rojec t and b e i n g inst rumen ta l in th e p r o g ress of th e w o rksho p . 7 Y e t w ith in th e s a m e l e tt e r K u rti re f e rr e d to E li z a b e th T h o m a s as a “ rep rese n ta tiv e of t h e d o m e stic ch e f ” . K u rti d id n o t g iv e th e sa m e a lm o st co n d e sc e n d ing rep rese n ta tio n of th e o th e r tw o co - o rg a n iz e rs. In h is d e scri p tio n of th e e v e n t to t h e d ir e cto r of t h e Cen te r w h e re th e w o rksho p w a s to be h e ld, K u rti d e scri b e d Dr . Haro ld M cGe e a n d Dr . Herv e T h is as b o t h incre d ible c o o ks and sci e n tists w ith g low in g resu m e s of p u b li c a tio n s and a cco m p li sh m e n ts. K u rti a lr e a d y had s tron g relat io n s w i th b o th as he h a d rev ie w e d M cGe e ’ s w o rk and h a d a ssist e d This w ith h is o n g o ing d isser ta tio n o n ly a fe w m o n t h s p ri o r. He a lso ro u ti n e ly v is ite d th e tw o and had a m u c h clos e r relat ion th a n T h o m a s w h o he h a d o n ly been int rod u c e d to in th e p rev iou s y e a r wi th ir reg u lar co rr e sp o n d e n c e by m a il rep rese n tin g a l m o st th e w h o le of th e ir relat io n sh ip. It m a ke s se n se th a t K u rti w o u ld p re f e r to w o rk wi th tw o p e o p le he co n side re d f ri e n d s a n d co ll e a g u e s ins te a d of so m e o n e he b a rely kn e w but by no m e a n s doe th a t m a ke it f a ir . K u rti e n d e d up e x clud ing th e fo u n d ing m e m b e r of t h e g rou p th a t c a m e up w ith th e id e a as w e ll as one w h o w a s in th e w o rds of Ug o V a ldre “ inst ru m e n ta l to th e st a rting , o rg a n izat ion and su cce ss fu l a ch iev e m e n t of th e E ri c e W o rks h o p on M o lecu lar Ga str o n o m y . ” W h e n th e p a m p h let ca m e o u t a d v e rtisi n g th e e v e n t , T h o m a s ’ n a m e w a s a lm o st i m p o ssi b le to f i n d w h il e K u rt i, This a n d M cGe e e n j o y e d e x trem e p rom in e n ce on th e f ro n t co v e r. V a ldre w e n t on to e la b o rat e in h is l e tt e r to T h o m a s th a t

6 U g o V al dre, l et t er to E l i zab eth C aw dry T ho m as. M arch 9, 1992.

7 N i cho l as K urt i , l et t er to H arol d M cG ee . Jul y 28, 1991.

he d is a g ree d w ith her l a ck of i n clusio n a n d th e rea so n s t h a t K u rti cit e d . E v e n M cGe e has co m e o u t m o re rec e n tl y to b ri n g cr e d it to T h o m a s a n d in h is o w n w o rds p lacin g her co n tribu ti o n on par w ith K u rti. M cGe e l e f t th e o rg a n iz ing co m m itte e a f te r t h e f ir st w o rksho p in 1 9 9 2 le a v ing K u rti a n d T h is as th e p ree m in e n t m e m b e r s of t h e w o rksho p w h ich th e y w o u ld rema in u n ti l K u rti ’ s d e a th six y e a rs lat e r. T h is w o u l d co n tin u e to run th e w o rksho p w ith th e n a m e ch a n g e d to th e I n te rna tio n a l W o rks h o p on M o lec u lar Ga stron o m y ‘ N. K u rti ’” . In 1 9 9 5 T h is p u b li sh e d h is d o ct o ral d issert a tio n title d M o l e cu lar and P h y sical Ga stron o m y i n w h ich he laid out th e o b jec tiv e s of th e f i e ld. 8 Dr . T h is in e ff e ct e st a b li sh e d h i m s e lf as t h e fa t h e r of m o l e cu lar g a stron o m y by ca ll ing h im se l f its fo u n d e r.

Now th a t it is clea r t h a t Tho m a s w a s cu t out of cr e d it fo r th e E ri ce w o rksho p it is im p o rt a n t to a tt e m p t to u n d e rstan d p recis e ly w h y sh e w a s not cr e d it e d a p p ro p ri a te ly .

L ike B e ll e L o w e , E v e lyn Halli d a y and Isa b e l Nob le T h o m a s h a d no fo rm a li z e d scien ti f ic train ing . S h e p icke d up her k n o w led g e f rom relat ion s h ips w ith her f ir st h u s b a n d w h o w a s a ph y sici st and h is co ll e a g u e s w ith w h o m sh e had ca su a l co n v e rsat ion . It b e ca m e e a sy to p ig e o n h o le T h o m a s in w ith th e f o u n d e rs of t h e h o m e e co n o m ics m o v e m e n t.

S h e w a s a w o m a n w ith no fo rm a li z e d scien ti f i c kn o w led g e w h o e n jo y e d co o king . K u rti e v e n ca ll e d her a rep re se n ta tio n of t h e d o m e s tic ch e f . S h e h a d c o m e up w ith a b ri ll ian t ide a to b ri n g a ll t h e se p e rson s to g e th e r b u t s h e w a s not v ie w e d on t h e sa m e lev e l as p e o p le li ke K u rti or T h i s w h o had fo rm a li z e d scien ti f ic train ing a lo n g w ith y e a rs of p u tt ing th e m to w o rk in th e kitc h e n . As a resu lt it w a s p o ssible th a t h e r skil ls w e re g rea tl y d iscou n te d a f t e r b e i n g lum p e d in w ith a g rou p th a t a lso s trug g les to g e t reco g n ition .

8 T hi s, H e r v e, " La g as t r on omie m ol é cul ai r e et ph y si q ue ” ( P hD di ss . , U ni v ersity of P aris V I ) 19 95 .

T h e w o rk of th e h o m e e co n o m ics p ro f e ss o r of th e e a rl y 2 0 th ce n tu ry a lso d e se rv e at th e v e r y lea st so m e cr e d it fo r th e f o u n d a tio n th e y laid f o r lat e r scien tists . E v e n so m e of t h e e x p e ri m e n ts th e y d id w o u ld not h a v e loo k e d o u t of p lac e at th e E ri ce w o rksho p s as th e y a p p ro a ch e d fo o d to p ic s f r o m v e ry scien tif ic p e rspe ctiv e s. Y e t t h e y to o h a v e b e e n th row n a side fo r th e y d id not sh o w th e cr e a tiv ity th a t lat e r m a le co u n t e rpa rts d i d . T h is is a kn o w n p ro b lem in t h e w o rl d of f o o d e sp e ci a ll y w h e n it co m e s to c h e f s. A ll f o u r of th e se w o m e n w o u ld be classif i e d as ch e fs and a re not a lon e in rec e i v ing less th a n a d e q u a t e rec o g n ition . In S a n P e ll e g ri n o ’ s li st of th e w o rl d ’ s 50 B e st Rest a u ra n ts o n ly tw o w o m e n a p p e a r, b o th o n e h a l f of a m a le fe m a le te a m . 9 W o m e n a re ce rtain ly u n d e r rep rese n te d in th e cu li n a ry w o rl d and h a v e b e e n fo r so m e time. M a n y h a v e sp e cu lat e d on t h e c a u se s w ith so m e fo cu sing on t h e d i ff icultie s of m o th e rh o o d co u p le d w ith a d e m a n d ing job , o th e rs sp e cu la tin g a b o u t t h e f a u lt w ith in th e kitch e n a tmos p h e re or in th e m e d ia p o rtr a y a l of h ig h p ro f il e m a le c h e f s . W h a t e v e r th e re a l re a so n ma y b e , it ca n n o t be ig n o red th a t th e re e x ists a stig m a t o w a rds w o m e n w h e n it co m e s to th e kitch e n . It is c e rtain ly a p o ssi b il ity th a t sim il a ri tie s in b a ckg rou n d b e tw e e n Tho m a s and e a rl ier h o m e e co n o m ics p ro f e ss o rs a ll o w e d th e f o r m e r to be d isco u n t e d d e sp it e th e f a c t th a t her co n tribu tio n s w e re a p p recia te d by m a n y . This d iscr im in a tio n if true w o u ld f a ll on t h e s h o u ld e rs of th e o rg a n iz e rs T h is a n d K u rti.

Ge n d e r d iscr im in a tio n m a y not h a v e b e e n th e o n ly rea so n th a t T h o m a s a n d o th e rs w e re m a rg ina li ze d . A n o th e r n a m e th a t h a sn ’ t co m e up y e t but w a s inf lu e n tia l in th e fo rm a tio n of th e f iel d is Ferran A d ri à . A d ri à is co n si d e red o n e of th e b e st c h e f s in th e w o rl d a n d p ract ic e s te ch n iq u e s th a t w o u ld f a ll in th e rea lm of m o lecu lar g a stron o m y .

9 S an P el l eg r i no & A q ua P an na . “ T he W o r l d ’ s 50 B est R es t au r an t s G ui de 2014 ” ( 20 14 ) .

In 1 9 8 8 he b e g a n ex p e ri m e n tin g w ith scien ti f i c cu isi n e and o p e n e d h is o w n lab o rat o ry - w o rksho p in 1 9 9 7 to fu rthe r th is st u d y . He w a s one of th e g rea t ch e fs at t h e ti m e w h o w a s u sing m e th o d s b e i n g d iscusse d at th e E ri ce w o rksho p . He w o u ld h a v e b e e n a p e r f e ct e x a m p le of th is new cu isi n e a n d is c o n side red by M cGe e to be t h e m o st inf l u e n tia l p io n e e r of e x p e ri m e n ta l c o o king . B u t he w a s n e v e r inv ite d to E ri ce . Desp ite a ll of t h e t a lk f o r t h e i n n o v a tio n a n d b ir th of m o lecu lar g a stron o m y at E ri ce , o n ly tw o ch e f s e m e rg e d as s e ri o u s ren o w n e d ch e f s. Hest o n B lume n t h a l a n d P ierr e G a g n a ir e , E n g li sh and Fr e n ch re sp e ctiv e ly , w e re th e o n ly t w o to h a v e a t te n d e d th e w o rksho p s a n d tran slat e th a t to rest a u ran t su cc e ss. E v e n th e n B lu m e n th a l o n ly sta rted a t te n d ing in 2 0 0 1 a n d G a g n a ir e in t h e wo rds of M cG e e w a s e n tre a tin g ly a m b iv a len t a b o u t th e te ch n ic a l inn o v a tio n . 10 So th e w o rksho p s w e re n o t inst ru m e n ta l in th e d e v e lop m e n t of any of th e fa m e d g a str o n o m ists. B lu m e n th a l a ctu a ll y a m a z e d th e a sse m b l e d cr o w d w h e n he a tt e n d e d w h e n he d e m o n strat e d w hat w a s o ccu rr ing in th e o u tsid e w o rl d . E v e n th e se tw o had so m e t h ing in co m m o n w ith th e o th e r m e m b e rs of th e w o rksho p and th a t w a s th e re n a tio n a li ty . T h e co m p o sition of t h e w o rksho p p a rtici p a n ts w a s d e cide d ly Fr e n ch a n d E n g li sh f o c u se d . A d ri à w a s S p a n i sh a n d no ch e f w o rki n g in S p a in w a s e v e r inv ite d . E v e n K u rti w h o w a s of Hun g a ri a n b ir th w a s n o tice a b ly Fr e n ch a n d E n g li sh in h is d e m e a n o r. He sp o ke b o th Fr e n ch and E n g li sh and e v e n a tt e n d e d th e S o r b o n n e in P a ri s d u ri n g h is e a rl ier y e a rs. He w a s a m e m b e r o f th e Roy a l S o ciet y and g a v e h is cr a ckli n g is su p e rb t a lk in f ron t of th e d e ci d e d l y E n g li sh a u d ien ce . He rv e T h is w a s a co m p l e te Fr e n ch m e n w ith h is e d u ca ti o n c o m ing in Fr a n ce a l o n g w it h w o rki n g f o r th e co u n tries ’ g o v e rnm e n t on m u ltiple o cca sio n s. The re has a lw a y s b e e n a sig n i f ican c e