Co l d W a r Cl a s s r o o m :

8 .2 2 5 / S T S .0 4 2 , P h y s ic s in t h e 2 0 t h C e n t u r y P r o f e s s o r D a v id K a is e r , 4 N o v e m b e r 2 1 0 2 0

1. “ B i g S c i e n c e ”

2. T h e “ S c i e n t i f i c M an p o w e r ” Bub b l e

3. T r ai n i n g Qu an t u m Mec h an ics

2

“B i g Sci ence”

Bi g Bu d g e t s

P. F o r m a n , 1987

1949: 96% o f f u n d s f o r a c a d e m i c p h y s i c s r e s e a r c h f r o m m i l i t a r y 1954: 98% o f f u n d s f o r a c a d e m i c p h y s i c s r e s e a r c h f r o m m i l i t a r y

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MI T O p e r a t i n g B u d g e t ( c o n s t a n t d o l l a r s )

250

200

Sp on s o r e d R e s e a r c h Ed u c a t i o n a l & G e n e r a l

150

100

50

0

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

4

“B i g S c i e nc e ”

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information, s ee https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/ 5

“B i g S c i e nc e ”

Bi g M a c h i n e s

Be rk e l e y Be v a t ro n , 1 9 5 5

By 1 9 5 2 , p h y s i c i s t s b e g a n t o j o k e t h a t a n e w p a r t i c l e s e e m e d t o

be di s c o v e r e d ev e r y m o n t h .

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“B i g S c i e nc e ”

Bi g En r o l l m e n t s

Pr o f . A n t h o n y F r e n c h t e a c h i n g p h y s i c s a t M I T i n 2 6 - 100, 1964

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Nu mb e r o f De g r e e s C o n f e r r e d b y M I T , 1 8 6 1 - 1970

8

Ph ys i cs Ph. D . s i n t he U S

9

Wh o w a s f illin g t h o s e s e a t s ?

Pr o f . A n t h o n y F r e n c h t e a c h i n g p h y s i c s a t M I T i n 2 6 - 100, 1964

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Ha r v a r d l e t t e r o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r a

ph y s i c s P hD s t u d e nt appl y i ng f or a pos i t i on at th e A E C ’ s A r g o n n e N a ti o n a l L a b o r a to r y , 1 9 5 4 : th e s tu d e n t h a d a tr a d i ti o n a l - so u n d i n g J a p a n ese la s t n a m e , s o t h e le t t e r - wr i t e r e m phas i z e d t hat th e s tu d e n t w a s a c tu a l l y a U S c i ti z e n f r o m

Ho n o l u l u a n d a US v e t e r a n o f W o r l d W a r I I .

Na v a l A c a d e m y ( A n n a p o l i s ) jo b a d f o r a n e w p h y s ic s fa c u l t y m e m b e r , 1 9 5 3 : o n l y th o s e w h o w e r e “ w h i te , m a l e , and an A m e r i c an c i t i z e n” w e r e el i g i b l e t o a p p l y .

11

Th r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 3 0 s , w o m e n h a d a c c o u n t e d f o r a b o u t 1 6 % o f t h e p h y s i c s

B. A . d e g r e e s e a r n e d e a c h y e a r i n t h e U S . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n f e l l to 4% . M e a n w h i l e , t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w o m e n e a r n i n g P h D s i n p h y s i c s d r o p p e d fr o m 4 % t o 2 % e a c h y e a r . “T h e m a r r i e d [ p h y s i c s g r a d u a t e ] s t u d e n t ’ s

wi f e e x p e c t s h i m h o m e e v e r y e v e n i n g a t f i v e o r

fi v e - th i r t y . N o w th e l ab o r ato r i e s ar e d ar k at ni g ht . ” In t er v iew w it h p s yc h o lo gis t A n n R o e , 1 9 5 0

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Ph y s i c s W i v e s “ G e t A c q u a i nt e d T e a , ” Be r k e l e y , 1 9 6 1

12

Pr o f . E v e l y n F o x K e l l e r

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Pr od u c t a d i n Ph y s ic s T o d a y , 1 9 5 0 s

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Qu e s t i o n s ?

14

“Ma npo w e r ”

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For more information, see

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If N nu c l e a r p h y s i c i s t s we r e “ w i l l i n g , a b l e , a n d ea g er t o u s e p a r t i cl e ac c e l e r at o r s , an d o n av e r a g e f i v e s u c h m e n p e r ac c e l e r at o r i s an e f f e c t i v e te a m , ” th e n th e A E C sh o u l d b u i l d N /5 ac c e l e r at o r s , o r t w o p e r yea r f o r a s l o n g a s “t h e in t e r n a t io n a l s it u a t io n re m a i n s ro u g h l y a s a t pr e s e nt . ”

AE C m e m o , J u l y 1 9 5 1

“B i g S c i e nc e ”

Image is in the public domain.

In 1 9 4 8 t h e A E C ov e r r u l e d it s G A C , w h ic h h a d a r g u e d t h a t o n ly on e Ge V par t i c l e ac c e l e r at or w as ne c e s s ar y , s c i e nt i f i c al l y . T he A E C bu i l t tw o to a v o i d hu r t i ng ph y s i c i s t s ’ “ m or al e . ”

16

If N nu c l e a r p h y s i c i s t s we r e “ w i l l i n g , a b l e , a n d ea g er t o u s e p a r t i cl e ac c e l e r at o r s , an d o n av e r a g e f i v e s u c h m e n p e r ac c e l e r at o r i s an e f f e c t i v e te a m , ” th e n th e A E C sh o u l d b u i l d N /5 ac c e l e r at o r s , o r t w o p e r yea r f o r a s l o n g a s “t h e in t e r n a t io n a l s it u a t io n re m a i n s ro u g h l y a s a t pr e s e nt . ”

AE C m e m o , J u l y 1 9 5 1

“B i g S c i e nc e ”

Image is in the public domain.

1953: 75% of ph y s i c s P hD s w ho c om pl e t e d t he i r de g r e e s w i t h A E C su p p o r t t o o k j o b s w i t h t h e A E C .

17

Th e C o l d W a r B u b b l e

18

Specu l a t i v e B u bbl es

• T u l i p c r a z e , 1 6 3 0 s

• S o u t h S e a B u b b l e , 1 7 2 0

• T e c h s t o c k s , 1 9 9 0 s

• H o u s i n g p r i c e s , 2 0 0 0 s

“a s i t u a t i on i n w hi c h te m p o ra ri l y h i g h p ri c e s a re su st ai n e d l ar g e l y b y in v e s t o r s ’ e n t h u s ia s m r a t h e r th a n b y c o n s i s te n t e s ti m a ti o n of r e a l v a l u e . ” Ro b e r t S h i l l e r

Ro l e s o f hy p e , a m p lific a t io n , a n d f e e d b a c k lo o p s .

19

As s e s s i n g th e S o vi e t T h r e a t

N ic h o la s D e W it t , S o v ie t P r o f e s s io n a l M a n p o w e r : I t s E d u c a t io n , T r a in in g , a n d S u p p ly (1 9 5 5 )

A le x a n d e r K o r o l, S o v ie t E d u c a t io n fo r S c ie n c e a n d T e c h n o lo g y

(1 9 5 7 )

N ic h o la s D e W it t , E d u c a t io n a n d P r o f e s s io n a l E m p lo y m e n t in the U S S R (1 9 6 1 )

De W i t t : “ a n i n d e f a t i g a b l e d i g g e r ” ; K o r o l : “ f a s t i d i o u s ”

20

“ P er pl ex i t i es a nd Pi t f a l l s ”

Bot h D e W i t t a nd K or ol w a r ne d a g a i ns t g e t t i ng l os t i n t he “n u m be r s g a m e ”:

• l a r g e fr a c t i o n o f S o v i e t engi n eer s w o r k ed i n ad m i n i st r at i o n , n o t R & D

• e x t r e m e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n

• s t a n d a r d s j i m m i e d t o fi t “pr od u ct i on q u ot a s ” of 5 - yea r pl a ns

• e x t e n s i o n a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e st u d e n t s i n f l at i n g t h e r an k s:

1/3 i n 1955, > 1/2 i n 1960.

no nf e r r o us m e t a l s m e t a l l ur g y

1. c o p p e r a n d a l l o y s ;

2. p r e c i o u s m e t a l s r e fi n i n g ;

3. …

11.

21

Enr ol l ment P a t t er ns

K o r o l r e f u s e d t o t a b u la t e e n r o llm e n t d a t a s id e b y s id e , t o a v o id “u nw a r r a nt e d i m pl i c a t i on s . ” D e W i t t di d s o onl y a f t e r e m p h a s iz in g a ll t h e c a v e a t s . H e f o u n d :

An n u a l D e g r e e s i n H i g he r E d u c a t i o n

US US S R

fu l l - tim e stu d e n ts: fu l l + e x t e n s i o n :

sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o l o g y :

3 : 1

Th e S o v i e t s w e r e

gr a d u a t i n g 2 - 3 t i m es mo r e s t u d e n t s p e r yea r i n en g i n eer i n g an d ap p l i e d s c i e n c e s th an th e U S .

4 : 3

25% , 75 %

22

Hy p e : “ T w o t o T h r e e T i m e s … ”

Eisenhower and Sputnik images are in the public domain.

…a n d t h e n c a m e S p u t n i k

Am p l i fi c a ti o n

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24

Fe e d b a c k L o o p

ND E A en a ct ed , S e p t 1 9 5 8 : $1 b (~ $ 9 b i n 2 0 2 0 $ ). F i rs t fe d e ra l a i d to ed u ca t i o n i n a cen t u r y .

Al l a i d w a s r e s t r i c t e d t o “de f e n s e ” f i e l ds : s c i e n c e , ma t h , e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d

ar e a s t u d i e s .

25

Li e s , D a m n Li e s , a n d S t a t i s t i c s

Ev e n a s i d e f r o m D e W i t t ’ s a n d K o r o l ’ s c a v e a t s — un e v e n qua l i t y , se v e r e sp e c i al i z at i o n , an d i n f l at i o n f r o m e x t e n si o n an d co r r es p o n d en ce s t u d en t s — th e n u m b e rs th e m s e l v e s d e s e r v e d a c l o s e r lo o k .

Tr o f i m L y s e n k o

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26

The Bu b b l e Bu r s t s

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St ude n t s re gi s t e re d

Jo b s o n of f e r

27

Qu e s t i o n s ?

28

Bu b b l e s a n d t h e W o r l d o f I d e a s

St a c k s o f t h e Ph y s i c a l R e v i e w by d e c a d e , 1 8 9 0 s - 1970s

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“T h e G e n e r al E p i s t e m o l o gi c al L e s s o n … ”

Ka n t

Image is in the public domain.

Ma c h

Ju n g

a n d fr i e n d s

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31

Qu a n t u m A me r i c a n s

Co n d o n Mo r s e

Op p en h ei m er

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Br i d g m a n

Ke m b l e Ur e y

Le c t u r e n o t e s , e x a m s , te x tb o o k s , b o o k re v i e w s …

32

Phi l os oph y Di s a ppea r s

“E n o u gh w i t h t h i s m u s t y a t a v i s t i c to - do a b o u t p o s i t i o n a n d mo me n t u m… ”

Fe s h b a c h , 1 9 6 2

Fe s h b a c h

© Massachusetts Institute of Technology / AIP Emilio Segrè