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Secr e c y and Secur ity

in th e N u c le a r A g e

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8 .2 2 5 / S T S .0 4 2 , P h y s ic s in t h e 2 0 t h C e n t u r y P r o f e s s o r D a v id K a is e r , 2 8 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0

1

1. “ T he A t om i c Secr et ”

2. T he H - Bo m b Qu e s t i o n

3. F r om t he L TB T to th e A B M

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2

Th e W o r k o f M a n y Pe o p l e

Is o to p e s ep ar atio n p lan t, O ak R id ge

Th e M a n h a t t a n P r o j e c t em pl o y ed m or e t han 125, 000 peopl e at 30 s i t es .

Ha nf or d Pl ut oni um f a c t or y

3

Th e M a k i n g o f a “ S e c r e t ”

10 di s t i nct r es pons es em er ged, 1945 - 55, t o “w h at i s t h e at o m i c s ecr et ? ” T h ey u n f o l d ed i n lo c k - st e p w i t h c h a n g i n g C o l d W a r p o l i t i c s.

(2 ) T h e o n ly “ s e c r e t” wa s wh e t h e r o r n o t a bom b c oul d be bui l t .

(1 ) “ T h e r e i s n o s e c r e t . ”

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No s e c r e t s , n o n e e d f o r m i l i t a r y cont r ol of a t om i c e ne r g y .

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Se c r e t s , P h a s e I : 1 9 4 5 - 48

If a to m ic s e c r e ts d id e x is t, th e y c o n c e r n e d “ k n o w - ho w ” and in d u s tr ia l c a p a c it y , r a th e r th a n te x tu a l in fo r m a tio n .

B - re a c to r , Ha n f o r d , 1 9 4 4

(3 ) r a w m a te r ia ls an d t h ei r h an d l i n g

(4 ) p r o d u c tio n p la n ts an d i n d u s t r i al m et h o d s

(5 ) te c h n ic a l d e ta ils o f de s i g n a nd m a nuf a c t ur e

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Fi r s t H i n t s o f S o v i e t E s p i o n a g e , 1 9 4 5 - 1946

In S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 5 , ju s t d a y s a fte r Ja p a n ’ s o f f i c i a l s u r r e n d e r , Ig o r

Go u z e n k o de f e c t e d f r om t he S o v i e t em b as s y i n C an ad a, s h ar i n g m an y se c r e t d o c u m e n t s w i t h C a n a d i a n

au t h o r i t i es . T h ey i m p l i cat ed s ev er al

https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/ So vi et es p i o n age ef f o r t s i n t h e U K an d C an ad a d u r i n g t h e w a r .

Go u z e n k o ’ s m a t e r i a l s l e d a u t h o r i t i e s t o B r i t i s h ph y s i c i s t Al a n N u n n M a y , w h o h a d w o r k e d a t th e

Ch a l k R i v e r n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s i t e n e a r O t t o w a d u r i n g th e w a r — pa r t of t he M a nha t t a n Pr oj e c t — an d wh o c o n f e s s e d t o p a s s i n g p h y s i c a l s a m p l e s o f fis s io n a b le U 233 an d U 235 to th e S o v ie ts . Ma y , w h o ha d pr e v i ous l y be e n a m e m be r of t he C om m uni s t Pa r t y , d e p l o r e d w h a t h e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e l a c k

of c oope r a t i on be t w e e n t he w a r t i m e a l l i e s .

Igo r G o u zen ko (in h o o d ) o n

Ca n a d i a n T V , 1 9 4 6

6

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El e c ti o n - Ye a r P o l i t i c s a n d A t o m i c S e c r e t s

HUA C r e l e a s e d “ a t o m i c es pi onage” r epor t i n Sept em ber 1948. T hey cl ai m ed t hat “Sci en t i s t X ” h ad gi v en a “co m p l i cat ed f o r m u l a” t o a Co m m u n i s t a g e n t i n M a r c h 1943.

7

El e c ti o n - Ye a r P o l i t i c s a n d A t o m i c S e c r e t s

t he

ed n .

g [ t h e w as i n a n d th a t l a t o t he a t or i e s

HUA C ’ s c l a i m : “ S c i e nt i s t X r e a d t o [ al l eged C o m m u n i s t agen t ] a co m p l i cat fo r m u la , w h ic h [ th e a g e n t] c o p ie d d o w Sci en t i s t X ga v e as h i s r eas o n f o r as ki n agen t ] t o co p y i t d o w n t h at t h e f o r m u l a th e h a n d w r itin g o f s o m e o th e r p e r s o n , he , S c i e nt i s t X , ha d t o r e t ur n t he f or m u Uni v e r s i t y of C a l i f or ni a r a di a t i on l a bor in th e m o r n in g . ”

Mi l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e D i v i s i o n s u r v e i l l a n c e t r a n s c r i p t : Th e a g e n t h a d a s k e d t h e s c i e n t i s t f o r c o p i e s o f a n ar t i cl e t h at h ad “ al r ead y b een p u b l i s h ed . ” “ I co u l d cer t ai n l y get r ep r i n t s o f i t , ” t h e s ci en t i s t i s r ep o r t ed t o ha v e r e pl i e d, but “ t he l e a f l e t i t s e l f wi l l g i v e t he m [ t he So vi et s ] n o kn o w l ed ge” t h at w o u l d b e h el p f u l f o r ma k i n g b o mb s .

8

El e c ti o n - Ye a r P o l i t i c s a n d A t o m i c S e c r e t s

HUA C b e g a n a “ t r i a l b y

ne w s pa pe r ” : a t l e a s t 8 f r ont - pa g e he a dl i ne s i n t he Ne w Y o r k T i m e s fo r th e s a m e s to r y , 1 9 4 8 - 49.

Ti m e , O c t 1 9 4 8 :

“H o t f o r m u l a ”

HUA C r e l e a s e d “ a t o m i c es pi onage” r epor t i n Sept em ber 1948. T hey cl ai m ed t hat “Sci en t i s t X ” h ad gi v en a “co m p l i cat ed f o r m u l a” t o a Co m m u n i s t a g e n t i n M a r c h 1943.

9

Se c r e t s , P h a s e I I : 1 9 4 8 - 55

Fo l l o w i n g H U A C ’ s m e d i a b l i t z , 5 d i f f e r e n t candi dat es f or “t he at om i c s ecr et ” em er ged. A l l no w fo c u s e d o n te x tu a l in f o rm a t io n , n o t “ k n o w - ho w ” or in fr a s tr u c tu r e .

(6 ) “ c o m p lic a te d fo r m u la s ”

(7 ) in fo o n n u c le a r s to c k p ile

(8 ) s iz e a n d s h a p e o f b o m b

(9 ) b lu e p r in t o f im p lo s io n m e c h a n is m

(1 0 ) g e n e r a l “ p r in c ip le s ” of bom b de s i g n

10

“ J o e 1 ”

Lat e i n A u gu s t 1 9 4 9 , t h e So vi et U n i o n s ecr et l y d et o n at ed i t s f i r s t f i s s i o n bom b, w hi c h US a ut hor i t i e s ni c k na m e d “ J oe - 1” ( i n ‘ honor ’ of J os e ph S t a l i n) . On S e p t e mb e r 2 2 , 1 9 4 9 , U S P r e s i d e n t H a r r y T r u ma n a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e U S ha d de t e c t e d t he nuc l e a r de t ona t i on, f ol l o wi ng we e k s of i nt e r na l de ba t e : ma k i n g t h e a n n o u n c e me n t mi g h t r e v e a l ho w th e U S c o u ld h a v e d e te c te d it.

Unt i l t ha t t i m e , US a ut hor i t i e s ha d r out i ne l y pr e di c t e d t ha t i t wo u l d t a k e t h e S ov i e t s 5 y e a r s t o pr oduc e t he i r o wn nuc l e a r we a pon — th e y ju s t k e p t es t i m at i n g “ 5 [ m o r e] y ear s , ” ev en as m o r e t i m e w en t b y . T h e i n i t i al es t i m at es w er e f ai r l y accu r at e af t er al l . B u t t h e n ew s o f “ J o e - 1”

none t he l e s s s e e m e d s hoc k i ng t o ma n y U S o f f i c i a l s a n d c i t i z e n s , gi v en t h e C o l d W ar r i v al r y be t we e n t he US a nd US S R .

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Kl a u s F u c h s Ev e r y w h e r e …

In J a n u a r y 1 9 5 0 , a n o th e r m e m b e r o f th e U K d e le g a tio n to th e w a r tim e M a n h a tta n P r o je c t, Kl a u s F u c h s , c o n fe s s e d to e s p io n a g e . F u c h s h a d b e e n a le ftis t a n ti - fa s c is t a g a in s t th e N a z is in h is n a ti v e G e r m a n y in th e 1 9 3 0 s ; h a d fle d to th e U K ; a n d th e n h a d w o r k e d a t bo t h Oa k Ri d g e an d Lo s Al a m o s d u r i n g t h e w a r .

Kl a u s F u c h s ’ s I D b a d g e p h o t o fr o m w ar tim e Lo s A lam o s

Fu c h s ’ s co n f es s i o n l ed t o t h e ev en t u al ar r es t o f Ju l i u s a n d E t h e l R o s e n b e r g . E th e l ’ s b r o th e r , Da v i d Gr e e ng l a s s , h a d b e e n a m a c h in is t a t L o s A la m o s a n d sh a r e d so m e i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h J u l i u s, w h o p a sse d i t t o a So vi et h an d l e r . T o ai d t h e p r o s ecu t i o n , t h e A EC ef f ect i v el y de c l a s s i f i e d wh a t wa s by t h e n c a l l e d “ t h i s na t i on ’ s m os t c l os e l y g ua r de d s e c r e t ” t o he l p s e c ur e th e R o s e n b e r g s ’ c o n v ic tio n (a n d e x e c u tio n ).

Da v i d Gr e e ng l a s s ’ s s k e t c h of i m pl os i on l e ns e s ,

en ter ed as evid en ce d u r in g th e R o s en b er gs tr ial Both images are in the publi c 1 d 2 omain.

An “ E xp l a n a t i o n ” f o r t h e S o v i e t B o m b ?

Ma n y c o m m e n t a t o r s — at t h e t i m e an d si n c e — co n cl u d ed t h at t h e “ b ac kw ar d ” So vi et s co u l d n ev er h a v e p r o d u ced a b o m b s o qui c k l y on t he i r o wn; t he y ne e de d t o r e l y on es p i o n age . B u t:

• i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d v i a e s p i o n a g e w a s of t e n t r e a t e d a s ( pot e nt i a l ) di s i n f o r m a t i o n by So vi et r es ear c h er s ;

•l i k e t h e M E D , t h e S o v i e t s p u r s u e d s e v e r a l ro u t e s in p a r a lle l , r a th e r th a n o n ly fo llo w w h a t ha d w or k e d i n t he US ;

• t h e y w e r e w o r k i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t ma t e r i a l s

(e p o x ie s , c o n v e n tio n a l e x p lo s i v e s , e tc .)

1946 di a g r a m s of a n i m pl os i on pl ut oni um content is excluded from our Creative

bom b b y S o v i e t ph y s i c i s t I g or K ur c ha t o v

Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/

See Alex Wellerstein , “ Nuclear Secrecy ” blog: https://blog.nuclearsecrec y .com/2012/11/30/soviet - drawings -o f -a n -a merican -b omb/

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Kl a u s F u c h s Ev e r y w h e r e …

Af t e r t h e F u c h s c a s e , t h e r e w a s a c o m m o n sl i p p a g e f ro m F u c h s t o a l l t h e o ri st s.

Image is in the public domain.

“W a r p e d m e n t a l i t i e s ” a n d

unba l a nc e d e duc a t i on g a v e t he or i s t s “a n a l m o s t d i s e a s e d y e a r n i n g t o re m o l d t h e w o rl d a f t e r t h e i m a g e o f th e ir o w n w o r k in p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e . ”

JC A E , A p r il 1 9 5 1

“T h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n o f u r e

sc i e n t i st s sp e c i f i c a l l y e n g a g e d i n re s e a r c h i n p h y s i c s h a s s u c c u m b e d to C o m m u n is tic p r o p a g a n d a . ”

Ju d g e A . H o l t z o f f , D e c e m b e r 1 9 5 6

14

25

20

15

10

5

0

Qu e s t i o n s ?

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Th e H - Bo mb Qu e s t i o n

In O c to b e r 1 9 4 9 , th e A E C ’ s

Ge n e r a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e re c o m m e n d e d agai n s t cr as h - co u r s e de v e l opm e nt of a n H - bom b. S om e co m m i t t ee m em b er s ar gu ed t h at su c h a w e a p o n w o u l d b e “ a n e v i l th in g in a n y lig h t . ”

AE C G e n e r a l Ad v i s o r y Co m m i t t e e , l a t e 1 9 4 0 s

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Nu c l e a r Do v e s ?

“ T h e G e n e r a l A d v i s o r y Co m m i t t ee r eco m m en d s an in t e n sif ic a t io n of ef f o rt s t o m ake at o m i c we a p o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r ta c tic a l p u r p o s e s … ”

Not onl y ha d t he GA C a d v i s e d a n a g g r e s s i v e st r a t e g y o f ex p an d i n g nuc l e a r - we a pons cap ab i l i t i es , b u t t h e m i n o r i t y r ep o r t t h at o b j ect ed to a n H - bom b on m or a l g r ounds w a s wr i t t e n b y En r i co F er m i an d I. I. R a b i , n o t b y Op p e n h e i me r .

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Re c o m m e n d a t i o n : T h e U S a n d N A T O s h o u ld d e p lo y hundr eds of f i s s i on w eapons t hr oughout W es t er n Eur ope t o re p e l t h e S o v i e t a rm y i n c a se o f a n i n v a si o n . O p p e n h e i m e r a n d col l eagues t hus pus hed f or a “f i r s t - us e” nucl ear pol i c y agai ns t an i n v adi ng ar m y .

A N e w V i s t a

A m a j o r s t u d y ( “ P r o j e c t V i s t a ” ) wa s c o n d u c t e d a t C a l t e c h i n su m m e r 1 9 5 1 , sp o n so re d b y t h e

U. S . A r m y a n d A i r F o r c e .

Th o u g h i t a n g e r e d t h e “ b i g b o m b ” / S A C l o b b y i n th e A ir F o r c e , it r a p id ly b e c a m e o ffic ia l U S p o lic y .

19

Ba n g f o r Bu c k

As o f Ap r i l 1 9 4 7 , t h e U S h a d co m p o n en t s f o r 7 fis s io n b o m b s . By t h e e n d o f 1 9 4 9 , t h e e n t i r e

US s t o c k p i l e t o t a l e d o n l y 235

bom bs .

F a t Ma n o n T i n i a n , A u g u s t 1 9 4 5

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De l i v e r y s y s t e m s ( a i r c r a f t ) w o u l d lim it th e s iz e o f H - bom bs , e v e n i f th e y c o u ld b e b u ilt. T h u s “ th e r e ap p ear s t o b e n o c h an ce o f t h ei r

be i ng a n e c onom i c a l a l t e r na t i v e t o

fis s io n w e a p o n s , ” b a s e d o n “ th e st r i c t c r i t e r i a o f d a m a g e a r e a p e r dol l a r . ” GA C , 1 9 4 9

Str ategic A ir C o m m an d , K o r ea, A u gu s t 1 9 5 2

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Tr i t i u m v e r s u s P l u t o n i u m

1

By O c t o b e r 1 9 4 9 , a l l k n o w n H - bom b des i gns r equi r ed l ar ge am ount s of tri ti u m ( H 3 ), w h ic h w a s ra r e and ex pens i v e to pr oduce. D es i gns cal l ed f or 1 – 5 kg of H 3 per bom b. Pr oduci ng 10g of H 3 me a n t not pr oduci ng 80g of Pu.

Th e U S w o u l d n e e d t o fo r g o 1 0 0 – 150 f i s s i on bom bs per H - bom b, and th e r e w o u ld n o t b e su f f i c i e n t H 3 fo r a s in g le H - bom b f or 5 y ear s .

En r ico F er m i, late 1 9 4 0 s

https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/

Sa v an n ah R i v er r eacto r s ite, es tab lis h ed 1 9 5 0

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Tr u m a n G i v e s O r d e r

“I h a v e d i r e c t e d t h e A t o m i c E n e r g y Co m m i s s i o n t o c o n t i n u e i t s w o r k o n al l f o r m s o f at o m i c w eap o n s , in c lu d in g th e s o - cal l ed h yd r o gen o r su p e r b o m b . ”

Pr es i dent T r um an, 31 J anuar y 1950

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23 S e pt 1949 1 O c t 1949 27 J a n 1950

22

Th e U l a m - Te l l e r I d e a

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Co n c e p t u a l b r e a k t h r o u g h , M a r c h 1 9 5 1 : u s e r a d i a t i o n p r e s s u r e (a n d n o t ju s t h e a t) fr o m fis s io n p r im a r y to c o m p r e s s fu s io n fu e l.

Fi r s t w o r k a b l e H - bom b des i gn; r equi r ed m uc h l es s H 3 .

23

Iv y M i k e T e sts

Ja n u a r y 1 9 5 0 : T r u m a n g i v e s o r d e r fo r “cr as h cour s e” dev el opm ent of a hy d r o g e n b o m b

Top: Image is in the public domain. Center: © source unknown.

Below: © Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Ma r c h 1 9 5 1 : ( T o p - se c re t ) U l a m - Te l l e r i d e a t o u s e ra d i a t i o n p r e s s u r e t o c a t a l y z e f u s i o n r e a c t i o n s

Sep t em b er 1952 : T h e U S e s ta b lis h e s a se c o n d f u l l - sc a l e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s l a b i n Li v er m or e, C A , t o w or k excl us i v el y on H - bom b des i gns . ( “O ur m ai n com pet i t i on w as Los A l am os r at her t han t he So vi et s . . . ”)

24

Iv y M i k e T e sts

Ja n u a r y 1 9 5 0 : T r u m a n g i v e s o r d e r fo r “cr as h cour s e” dev el opm ent of a hy d r o g e n b o m b

Ma r c h 1 9 5 1 : ( T o p - se c re t ) U l a m - Te l l e r i d e a t o u s e ra d i a t i o n p r e s s u r e t o c a t a l y z e f u s i o n r e a c t i o n s

h e s a

n el p

s l a b i n y on H -

et i t i on w as s . . . ”)

Top & bottom left : Image is in the public domain. Center: © source unknown.

Below: © Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

No v e m b e r 1 9 5 2 : T h e fir s t U S H - bom b des i gn i s t es t ed ( I vy M i ke te s t) n e a r th e E n e w e to k A to ll in th e Pa c i f i c O c e a n : 1 0 . 4 me g a t o n s .

25

Ab o v e - Gr o u n d Nu c l e a r T e s t s , 1 9 4 6 – 1963

80

60

40

20

0

1 9 45 1 9 50 1 9 55 1 9 60

Op e r a t i o n T e a p o t ,

Ma r c h 1 9 5 5

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26

Qu e s t i o n s ?

27

“Luc k y D r ag on” and F all - Ou t

``

Ca s t l e - Br a v o, 1 M a r c h 1954,

15 m e g a t ons

`

Images are in the public domain.

Fi s h e r m e n o n t h e D a i g o Fu ku r yu M ar u ( “ Lu c k y D r ago n ” )

28

Do m e s t i c F a l l - Ou t

1956

In s p r in g 1 9 5 7 , L in u s P a u lin g d r a fte d a pe t i t i on t o s t op nuc l e a r t e s t i ng ; i t qui c k l y acq u i r ed 9 0 0 0 s i gn at u r es .

In 1 9 5 8 , th e S t. L o u is - ba s e d Co m m i t t e e f o r N u c l e a r I n f o r m a t i o n be g a n a na t i onw i de ba b y - to o th su r v e y t o m o n i t o r S t r o n t i u m - 90 le v e ls .

29

Dr i v i n g T e s t s Un d e r g r o u n d

Bo w i n g t o p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e , E i s e n h o w e r or de r e d a uni l a t e r a l m or a t or i um on U S te s tin g in 1 9 5 8 ; b u t te s tin g b e g a n a g a in af t er t h e So vi et s r es u m ed t h ei r o w n (m a s s i v e ) te s ts in 1 9 6 1 .

Th e m a t t e r c a m e t o a h e a d i n O c t o b e r 1962 w i t h t he Cu b a n M i s s i l e Cr i s i s , wh i c h p a ve d t h e

wa y f o r t h e Li m i t ed Te s t B a n T r e a t y , si g n e d i n A u g u st

1963.

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De b a t i n g M i s s i l e De f e n s e

In 1 9 6 8 , H a n s B e th e a n d Ri c h a r d G a r w i n p u b l i c l y ch a l l e n g e d U S p o l i c y o n an t i - ba l l i s t i c m i s s i l e sy st e m s, a r g u i n g t h a t t h e y wo u l d e a s i l y b e d e r a i l e d by d e c o y s .

Be t h e Ga r wi n

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ABM a n d V i e t n a m

Th e a n t i - AB M c a m p a i g n a t t r a c t e d h u n d r e d s of s c i e nt i s t s w ho a l s o oppos e d t he V i e t na m Wa r . T h e e f f o r t s h e l p e d s p a r k t h e “ M a r c h 4 Mo v e m e n t ” a t MI T i n 1 9 6 9 .

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De s p i t e p r o t e s t s a n d c r i t i q u e s o f s y s t e m fe a s ib ilit y , th e U S a n d U S S R s ig n e d a n AB M t r e a t y i n 1 9 7 2 , l i m i t i n g e a c h co u n t r y t o t w o s ys t em s : o n e t o p r o t ect i t s cap i t al , an d o n e t o p r o t ect an I C B M s i l o .

A Co n t i n u i n g D e b a t e

Safegu ar d r ad a r , N o r th D ako ta, 1 9 7 5

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Pr e s i de nt R e a g a n an n o u n ced h i s “S t r a t e g i c D e f e n s e In itia ti v e ” (o r “ S ta r Wa r s ” ) i n M a r c h 1 9 8 3 ; an d t h e U S w i t h d r ew fr o m th e A B M tr e a ty in 2002. T he de ba t e g oe s on…

Sp r in t m is s ile tes t, 1 9 7 5

license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair- u 3 s e 3 /

“N at ional S ac r if ic e Z ones ”

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3000 s qua r e m i l e s of C ont i ne nt a l U S no w de e m e d of f i c i a l l y uni nha bi t a bl e .

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Si n ce W o r l d W ar I I , n u cl ear i s s u es h a v e al w a ys b een i n t er t w i n ed w i t h d o m es t i c ma t t e r s — cu l t u r al an d p o l i t i cal f o r ces

th a t, o n th e fa c e o f it, h a d little to d o w ith we a p o n s o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s .

Ou r N u k e s , Ou r s e l v e s

In tu r n , th e s e b r o a d e r c u r r e n ts — ch a n g i n g i d e a s a b o u t h o w s c i e n c e i s done a nd ho w s c i e nt i s t s s houl d

be ha v e — ha v e s ha pe d nuc l e a r pol i c i e s a nd t he w e a pons th e m s e lv e s .

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